Piagets Developmental Psychology Essay Example for Free

Piagets Developmental Psychology Essay Piaget (1896-1980) believed that there was a quantitative difference between the intelligence of adults, young children and older children. He believed adults have better knowledge of the world and because children do not use the same logic in there thinking. He believed that childrens logic changed as they developed through their four stages of life Piaget came to this conclusion after completing his cognitive development test. Unlike psychologist Siegler and Huges, Piaget is a theoretical psychologist and carried out many experiments to illustrate his theories. These stages have been critisied by many psychologist including Hughes, Siegler, Rose, Blank. Sensorimotor Stage Piaget believed that a new born had basic biological motivations, and acquired knowledge by accommodation and assimilation, and once a child has acquired these schemas it would be at equilibration. It has been argued that Piaget underestimated the intelligence of a newborn. Piagets sample did not illustrate a wide variety of children therefore his experiment cannot be related to every child at that relevant age. His study was also only preformed on his own children therefore results could have been bias. Similar experiments were devised by other psychologist giving different conclusions, indicating Piagets results were not always reliable. Piagets first stage stated that a baby (0-2) first explores the world using motor and reflex actions. For example a child reaches towards an object and after many attempts will be able to eventually grasp the object and then bring the object to its mouth and will continue to explore it uses the senses of taste and smell. A child is said to have completed this stage of development once they have obtained object permanence (a child understands that an object still exists even when it is not visible). This theory was tested by giving a 5-6 months old child a toy to play with, the toy was covered with a cloth and the babys behavior observed. Results showed that a baby immediately lost interest as if the object never existed. However when tested with a 10 month old child it would continue to reach for the toy although it could not see it. Another explanation is that the child did not think the toy had seized to exist but was distracted by the movement of the cloth, which is why the child looks away and appears to have forgot the toy. Bower and Wishart (1972) argued that it does still exist in a babies mind even when it may not be visible. There experiment was done on a baby less than four months; the baby was offered a toy but as it reached for the toy the lights were switched off this showed that even when the lights were off the child continued to reach for the toy. It can be argued that the child was not reaching out for the toy but was just reaching due to the discomfort of the sudden darkness. This study could also go against the ethics as the child could have been experiencing fear from the sudden loss sight. Pre-operational Stage At this stage a child develops symbolic thinking; another characteristic of this stage is egocentrism. Piaget devised a three mountain task to test this theory. A child was sat in front of a three mountains model, a doll was then placed at varies positions in the modeled mountains and pictures were presented, they were asked to pick the picture that represented what the doll could see. Four and five year olds selected the picture showing what they could see, this suggested that they thought the doll could see what they could identifying egocentrism. However most seven years old were able to identify the correct picture. Due to Piagets selection of children it was very difficult to apply his findings to others, his own children were used throughout most of his experiment and any others were from well educated backgrounds. It can be argued that this experiment lacked ecological validity as the child could not relate to the situation they were presented with. Hughes devised a task to test egocentrism in a child but relating to an everyday situation, children as young as three and a half answered the question correctly, and 90% of children tested altogether were able to give the correct answer. Concrete operational stage A child enters this stage when they understand the appearance of something may change although the item itself remains the same. Piaget tested this stage by setting out a row of counters in front of each child, than asking the child to make another row the same as the first one. Piaget would than spread out his row of counters and ask the child if there were still the same amount of counters. This experiment tested a childs conservation of numbers. Most seven year olds were able to answer this question correctly concluding by the age of seven children are able to conserve numbers. To test the conservation of liquid Piaget collected two identical glasses A + B and a taller thin container C and asked the child which container held more, he then transferred the liquid from A+B to C and asked the child again. When a child was able to identify that both containers held the same amount of liquid they had achieved the concrete operational stage. Many aspects of this test have been criticized, including the social context of the childs understanding. Rose and Blank argued that when a child is asked the same question twice they assumed there first answer was incorrect and changed their answer. When Rose and Blank replicated this experiment and only asked the question once most six years olds gave the correct answer. McGarriglr and Donaldson (1974) argued that as the adult changed the appearance children would assume this was significant so devised an experiment were the appearance of the items were changed accidently. Children tested were between four and six, results showed that more than half tested gave the correct answer. Confirming children conserve at a younger age than Piaget claimed. Formal Operational Stage A child shows logical thinking but generally needs to be able to work through sequences with actual objects. Once a child can manipulate ideas in their head it has entered the formal operational stage. Piaget tested this by giving each child string and weights and told them to find out which factors affects a complete swing of the pendulum they could vary the weights, length of string and strength of push. Piaget found children who had entered the formal operational stage approached the task systematically testing one variable at a time. Psychologist Robert Siegler (1979) tested children aged five and upwards, by using the balance beam test. Results showed that eventually the child would take into account the interaction between the weight and the disc but would not achieve this ability until they were between 13 and 17. This concluded that childrens cognitive development is based on acquiring and using rules in increasingly more complex situations instead of stages. Conclusion Piaget tested his children and well-educated professionals therefore making his findings ungeneralised and potentially bias. Subsequent questions relating to the childs individual answer may have led children to give the answer researchers were looking for. Piaget underestimated the ability of childrens social understanding. A childs perception of an adult the importance of a familiar context and the meaning of a second question all affect a childs performance. Weaknesses in Piaget experiment prevent children from showing what understood. Piaget overestimated the age at which children entered the formal operational stage (Siegler). As Piaget focused on individual children he failed to take social settings into account. He failed to show that development is continuous and not in stages Evidence suggests that environmental factors, ethics and gender could alter a childs development. Small samples and controllability of variables were not taken into account. Piagets had very little evidence to support his findings and believed that his finding could be applied to every child. Piagets focus on qualitative development has played an important role on education. Piaget opened the opportunities for others to learn and discover more on how children development.

The Picture of Dorian Gray :: Literary Analysis, Wilde

Throughout the novel The Picture of Dorian Gray, author Wilde's talks about the influence of Henry that causing the effect of the Henry characterization toward the point of view regard to women, marriage and love. In the text, Dorian exposes to the influence of Henry. For instance, after Sibyl's death incident causing Dorian having an emotional breakdown. At this moment, Henry offering Dorian some suggestions, however, the reflection of Dorian emotion afterward can seem a drastic change from sympathy to indifference toward the incident of his lover sibyl's, thus Henry represented a strong imagine of influences of Dorian. His advise for Dorian can penetrate deeply goes into his mind. One way that Lord Henry influences Dorian by using his advised to manipulates him. For example, "You can come to my sister's box. She has got some smart women with her'' (113). Wilde's implies that Dorian shouldn't regret about Sibyl death, but rather he should get engage of knowing other females from his sister's box. Initially, Dorian views the Sibyl's death as his fault. His presence is the solely reason that behind the death of Sibyl's. Wilde's expresses his view of women when Dorian's mention '' You are shallow and stupid. My God! How mad I was to love with you! What a fool I have been"(102). Wilde view that women without any artistic talent are considered worthless. Another example, Dorian asks forgiveness from Sibyl's before he heard the news about the death of Sibyl's by writing a letter to expresses his absurd action as sorrow, regret and forgive ."He covered page after page of wild words of sorrow and wilder words of pain" (111). The contrast between the Dorian whom have his own thought and the Dorian follow thoroughly what Henry says can be seen as a greater diverge person. Once Dorian established the root of what the Henry tells him, and Dorian will follow the road that causing Basil to view him differently. For example, Dorian responds of '' I met Lady Gwendolen, Harry's sister, for the first time. We were in her box. She is perfectly charming"(122). Wilde's implies, Dorian is a creature that easily controlled by the hand of Henry's and he can change his behavior and action after he's listening to Henry advise of Sibyl's death. As the novel progressive, Basil engages further conversation with Dorian's. He realizes Dorian's is not the same Dorian he knew when Dorian says '"A man who is master of himself can end a

Economic Commentary: Public Good, Market Failure Essay

Paper Edition | Page: 5 Jakarta has long been infamous for its repeated floods, such as those that crippled the capital and all its government and economic activities last week. Over 15,000 people were displaced and the material losses from infrastructure destruction and damage inflicted on personal property have reportedly reached Rp 20 trillion (US$ 2 billion). The devastating impact of the disaster on government activities and public services under the central government’s auspices has revived a debate over the need for the country to move its capital from floodridden Jakarta. Even President Susilo Bambang Yudhoyono, according to his aides, has considered relocation of the capital, albeit as a last resort, as part of an all-out, comprehensive effort to solve the problems facing Jakarta. With or without major floods, which strike every five or six years, Jakarta can no longer sustain the population burden with all its consequences. The city no longer has space to provide housing to all of its nearly 10 million citizens or build roads for the 6 million cars and motorcycles thronging the capital. This is quite apart from the city’s lack of infrastructure to protect residents from disasters like the annual floods. Jakarta today is typified by frustrating traffic gridlock, slums that encircle high-rise buildings, makeshift huts built along riverbanks, food stalls and groceries that occupy sidewalks, traditional markets that spill onto public thoroughfares, clogged drains, illegal parking along busy streets and other forms of disorderliness resulting from the state of over-population. Not to mention the city’s crime rate, which tends to increase year-on- year. Every time Jakarta voters chose their leader, they elect a candidate who they consider able to live up to their high expectations, which of course gives them false hope. Jakarta has turned into a megalopolis without enough resources to deal with its gigantic problems and challenges. What the founding fathers failed to anticipate when they chose Jakarta as the capital city was perhaps its evolution as the country’s commercial hub. About 60 percent of the nation’s money circulates in Jakarta, where foreign companies assign their representatives. Many countries have become aware of the problems in developing their capital city as both the center of government and the heart of economic activities. Then they have got to the point where relocating the capital city becomes unavoidable. Brazil did it in 1960 when it moved its capital from densely populated Rio de Janeiro to newly built Brasilia City, our Southeast Asian neighbors Malaysia and Myanmar moved their capitals to Putrajaya and Naypyidaw in 1999 and 2005 respectively. Indonesia moved its capital to Yogyakarta from January 1946 to December 1949 due to the war of independence. In that time Bukittinggi in West Sumatra also briefly served as the capital city when founding president Sukarno established an emergency government prior to his arrest by the Dutch between December 1948 and June 1949. Unless Jakarta takes drastic measures to shore up its increasing burden, Indonesia will have to consider an alternative capital. Sooner or later saying good-bye to Jakarta will no longer be a matter of choice, but of necessity. Commentary: The article tells us about the recent flood in Jakarta, which has brought huge impacts to the nation financial cycle. The flood was happened because many factors, but the most significant factor is because the lack maintenance of the flood controls system in Jakarta. The capacity of the drains has not been maintain to what level it should be. Therefore, due to heavy rain during the rain season the flood control system could not handle the pressure which resulting the massive flood in most of part the city. Public Good is defined as a good that is both non-excludable and non-rivalrous. Nonrivalrous; its consumption by one person does not reduce consumption by someone else; Non-excludable; it is not possible to exclude someone from using the good. Flood in Jakarta happened because the government has created a market failure since they have under provided the flood control system in Jakarta. The flood control system is an example of an environmental public goods: flood cont rol system, which nobody would provide on their own, even though everybody benefits from it being available. This suggests that since flood control system is a public good (because it is over consume, and underprovided based on what is needed for society) it clearly shows that it is an example of a market failure. Since the market fails to allocate resources to the production of the public goods it means that there are external costs. The article mentioned that the flood has resulted massive looses: over 15,0000 people were displaced and material losses from the city infrastructure, damage inflicted on personal property have reportedly reached Rp 20 trillion (US$ 2 billion). About 60 percent of the nation’s money circulates in Jakarta, where foreign companies assign their representatives; the flood has also interrupted the economic activities, as Jakarta is the â€Å"heart of economic activities† Through this tragedy there are different effect resulted. Seeing the disaster, we could clearly see the disadvantages. Most Jakartans living in flood-prone areas will probably answer mud or garbage after the flood, Citizen loss their property, illness such as fever and other water-borne diseases has also spread wildly.It means, there are external cost needed to recover houses and infrastructure as well as for the health care. In the other hand, other stakeholder got more benefit : trash picker and food seller on the street. Local news reported that the trash picker help to picked up motorcycle from one point to another; they got paid for Rp. 20.000/one way. The food seller on the street increases their income as there is increase in consumer,people were trying to see the flood from closed distance. Jakarta’s government must step in to ensure that flood control systems are produced at socially desirable levels. The flood control system should be provided up to the point where MB=MC so the flood would not be happen again and it would not interrupt the economic sector as well as creating disadvantage for the whole citizen. There are many ways to correct the market failure. Government could make an effective legislation to limit number of urbanization. As we know, Jakarta does not have an appropriate city planner. People build shift huts in the area where it is inappropriate such as the riverbanks. These people are not paying for the house tax since their house is also illegal. This will distort the city infrastructure and also decrease government revenue since they are not paying tax. Government could also do implication of direct provision in using economic criteria to determine which public goods and in what quantity of the public good should be produced. To make government direct provision to be happen, tax should be imply. With implying indirect tax government will increase the revenue which could be use for the spending on public goods, in this case is to increase the number the flood control system and maintain its quality. In long run, this issue will add another problem including the nation government and economic sectors. Based on the article, the President of Indonesia has stated there would be a probability of relocation of the capital. This will bring huge cost on all government, public services, and the whole economic activity within the country, unless the flood issue in being solved. Works Citied: â€Å"Editorial: Good-bye Jakarta.† Jakarta Post. N.p., 26 Jan. 2013. Web. 01 Feb. 2013. Tragakes, Ellie. â€Å"Market Failure.† Economics for the IB Diploma. Cambridge: Cambridge UP, 2009. 119+. Print.

Evaluation Of The School Intervention Program - 987 Words

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